radio as a medium is in the early 1920's the United States and Europe, it is structured by an opposition between private radio and public radio. The European model is different from the American model based on networks of private stations. Private radio is funded by advertising and works with the audience measurement. She gives birth to a form of individual work: the "serial" (serial, soap opera, sitcom)
I. ORGANIZATION
A. When
Networks Radio is the U.S. government reluctance on the institutional form it should take. The first experimental transmissions have occurred in Europe. In 1908 Lee de Forest broadcast a concert from the Eiffel Tower. In 1918 the economic environment is the conversion of war industries: the very large electrical equipment are in the broadcasting market potential. Also local initiatives are proliferating. In 1922, 200 licenses have been requested to broadcast in the United States. In Europe in 1922 we note the concession application of Lorentz-Telefunken. In 1923 a broadcast license is given to the BBC. In 1922 a Paris station broadcasting from the Eiffel Tower.
First Debates - The Navy is a candidate for public use (networks - programs) but the issue is economic and consists of the construction contracts and sale of transmitters and receivers as well as links at the accommodation facility (need build networks in the U.S.). The programs are there to sell hardware. The first initiatives are due to an electrical equipment company (Westinghouse Station Pittsburgh 1921) and the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) for which the stakes are selling receivers. New stations York and Chicago (1922) depend on ATT (telephone) for whom the challenge is to sell bonds. There are also local initiatives: industry, department stores, newspapers, churches. In 1923 there were 600 stations in the United States, 40% belong to companies of electrical equipment, there are a million listeners.
Debate opens on advertising. Magazine printers are hostile to advertising on the radio. Printer's Ink wrote "The family circle is not a public square advertising need not be invited." The careful introduction of advertising is via emissions sponsored.
networks. the principle that governs the construction of radio networks is that of membership. Technically local stations are connected to a headend (New York). Regarding content, local stations supplement their airtime (programs produced locally) by emissions produced by the head of the network in New York. Emissions from the network are not funded advertising (sponsorship). Local stations 'sell' a number of listeners to the network ... who sells to advertisers. Measuring the number of listeners is essential to that all works.
B. Setting up the system
The major networks are:
- NBC (National Broadcasting System), funded by RCA (which bought the network "red" ATT), General Electric and Westinghouse - Its sponsor is David Sarnoff (originally from Central Europe), famous for establishing radio contact with the rescue ship of the Titanic "He joined a talent agency in New York in the 1940s: NBC has 220 stations and is the first network.
- CBS was founded in 1927 - The company was bought in its engineer-founder Isaac Levy, who brings to a family of tobacco vendors (interested in advertising opportunities las). The prorpietaire Bill Paley briefly redeems shares of Columbia (film) in 1928-hence the name A. Judson, known impresario will support programs
- Mutual : A group of independent stations - 1934
- ABC (American Broadcasting Company), established in 1943 by sugar magnate Edward J. Noble
- In 1945 there are still 900 independent stations - There are also public stations (City of New York University)
- regulation: First text adopted in 1926 the Radio Act establishes the authority of public power over the allocation of wavelengths. In 1934 the Federal FCC allocates spectrum "She refuses to establish an a priori censorship but can remove the authorization to issue if it is spreading false information and" pornography "and it requires equal treatment of candidates during Election
- Organization of airtime. For example CBS in 1927 to provide 18 hours of programming per day at 20 stations network gives them free emission filling financed by advertising but must distribute them when there's more audience-stations pay for programming prestigious
- Advertising - Agencies are born to feed the press. In 1975 birth of the first agency, Ayer and Sons, Philadelphia. She invented the concept of global contract: the agency prepares the messages, find locations and has business with an exclusive contract. Agencies are expanding their business by 1900 the board from manufacturers: marketing appears. Agencies perform a measurement of the audience for newspapers. In 1914 the newspapers themselves organize a service of the circulation audit. 1931il exists in an office audit of the circulation of press indirectly fixed the price of advertising.
For radio system is adapted Arthur A. NIELSEN engineer from MIT created a device that measures for each position the viewing hours and frequencies. advertising on radio is never seriously questioned. In 1929 the FCC wrote:
- "... The Commission must recognize that without advertising the radio would not exist ... If a law was passed against advertising the public would be deprived of millions of dollars in programs that are developed simply because those who fund them think curry a favorable opinion of the auditors in respect of the network or the advertiser who associates his name and the program activity "
- The steps are systematized in the years 1930-40: - Steps are being made each week: 1 point = 800 000 - There are small green books: the "Nielsen" that give the audience measurement of emissions-testing families: keep a "book" that shows what 'they listen. There is a measurement campaign every year to fix the price of advertising on major networks.
- Qualitative-The Radio Research Group of Paul Lazarsfeld, a professor at Columbia University in New York and Chicago, specializing in audience research. We measure the satisfaction of listeners by making them push a button green or red depending on their opinion while they listen to a broadcast. Emissions are tested before distribution. These works of social engineering are conducted thereafter by members of the "Chicago School"
II. PROGRAMS
The four pillars of the programs are the Star System, Serials, Games and Information.
Star System: We collect hearing about famous names. NBC and CBS compete Jack Benny on Saturday evening. CBS draws Bing Crosby, who is famous, along with the American Tobacco Cy advertiser. Emissions of these stars have as facilitators of content "varieties," light music, entertainers, comedians, all greeted by a "host" famous.
* Serials / Soap Operas - The serials are imitated film. The archetype was the perils of Pauline. They are called Soap Opera because they are sponsored by brands of detergents. They are broadcast in the afternoon and aimed at a female audience. Episodes are 15 min. They tell the feelings and the vicissitudes of ordinary life-the afternoon listening Ma Perkins ("Mother of America") or The Goldbergs (representing recent immigrants in New York), or The Romance of Helen Trent . In 1936 The American Family Robinson is funded by the National Association of Manufacturers and staged a "normal" family of the working class where the father is responsible for the whole family and has the authority. The series for adolescents metent with characters borrowed Comics: Dick Tracy , Little Orphan Annie . The character of the series for teens can be proposed as models and Jack Armstrong, The All American Boy or The Lone Ranger. Some soap deal with changes in society. Two on a Shoestring in the 1940s shows young girls work in New York. The soaps are "mobilized" during the war to boost the morale of the nation. Some characters "go" to the front.
The authors are experimenting with new narrative forms: in Central Station all the characters intersect at station of the same name. The contents focus
consensus values to stereotype. In Amos'n'Andy the two heroes, taxi owners are African-American played by whites.
The soaps were introduced as hero of "new" urban characters: journalists, police officers, detectives. They offer a bleak vision of the big city, "a thin wall of detectives and journalists separate it from anarchy ..."
Social function of Soap Operas. Contrary to what critics think of from the educated, who do not listen not in reality, Soap does not address a "crowd" but undifferentiated groups (women, youth ...). However, they are streamed in all groups of society and thus have a unifying effect. They create a common agenda (we expect the new episode). They contribute to the unification of lifestyle products consumed by. The schedule of matches on the radio otherwise has the same unifying effect throughout the country.
They create a reflection on the new popular culture. It criticizes their simplistic plots, their stereotypical characters, their conservative values. Plaidant en leur faveur, les études commandées par les compagnies rappellent qu’ils permettent aux auditrices de faire l’expérience de sentiments et d’émotions plus larges que ceux de leur quotidien. Le soap tire de leur solitude les Américaines des années 1940, souvent confinées à la maison.
Jeux : Les jeux radiophonique ont aussi une dimension sociale et politique. Le plus célèbre est « La question à 64 dollars ». Le jeu peut être compris comme la mise en scène d’une société compétitive où émergent les talents.
La radio comme culture ? Des formes de la culture savante ou semi savante were also well established on the radio. You can hear classical music and jazz. We work by the creation of a playwriting adapted. Orson Welles writes for radio War of the Worlds triggers panic famous cleverly orchestrated. The Lux Radio Theater Cecil B De Mille movie transposes a weekly luxury with its stars on the air are produced documentaries for radio during the Great Depression.
Radio, Press and politics - Stations conflict ave the press in the 1920s for the premiere of information. Networks like CBS are creating newspapers Information sponsored by advertising. It appears a new form of political communication illustrated by the fireside conversations Roosevelt
Conclusion. The radio network develops the model that is extraordinarily successful in creating a culture industry that can be imposed on the entire population and to invent new forms of popular culture. In 1944 90% of Americans listen to radio. listeners. The federal commission began to fear their power. It launched an investigation for abuse of dominant position and NBC must sell one of its networks. However in the 1950's the development of television will be entrusted to the major networks: NBC, CBS, ABC.
I. ORGANIZATION
A. When
Networks Radio is the U.S. government reluctance on the institutional form it should take. The first experimental transmissions have occurred in Europe. In 1908 Lee de Forest broadcast a concert from the Eiffel Tower. In 1918 the economic environment is the conversion of war industries: the very large electrical equipment are in the broadcasting market potential. Also local initiatives are proliferating. In 1922, 200 licenses have been requested to broadcast in the United States. In Europe in 1922 we note the concession application of Lorentz-Telefunken. In 1923 a broadcast license is given to the BBC. In 1922 a Paris station broadcasting from the Eiffel Tower.
First Debates - The Navy is a candidate for public use (networks - programs) but the issue is economic and consists of the construction contracts and sale of transmitters and receivers as well as links at the accommodation facility (need build networks in the U.S.). The programs are there to sell hardware. The first initiatives are due to an electrical equipment company (Westinghouse Station Pittsburgh 1921) and the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) for which the stakes are selling receivers. New stations York and Chicago (1922) depend on ATT (telephone) for whom the challenge is to sell bonds. There are also local initiatives: industry, department stores, newspapers, churches. In 1923 there were 600 stations in the United States, 40% belong to companies of electrical equipment, there are a million listeners.
Debate opens on advertising. Magazine printers are hostile to advertising on the radio. Printer's Ink wrote "The family circle is not a public square advertising need not be invited." The careful introduction of advertising is via emissions sponsored.
networks. the principle that governs the construction of radio networks is that of membership. Technically local stations are connected to a headend (New York). Regarding content, local stations supplement their airtime (programs produced locally) by emissions produced by the head of the network in New York. Emissions from the network are not funded advertising (sponsorship). Local stations 'sell' a number of listeners to the network ... who sells to advertisers. Measuring the number of listeners is essential to that all works.
B. Setting up the system
The major networks are:
- NBC (National Broadcasting System), funded by RCA (which bought the network "red" ATT), General Electric and Westinghouse - Its sponsor is David Sarnoff (originally from Central Europe), famous for establishing radio contact with the rescue ship of the Titanic "He joined a talent agency in New York in the 1940s: NBC has 220 stations and is the first network.
- CBS was founded in 1927 - The company was bought in its engineer-founder Isaac Levy, who brings to a family of tobacco vendors (interested in advertising opportunities las). The prorpietaire Bill Paley briefly redeems shares of Columbia (film) in 1928-hence the name A. Judson, known impresario will support programs
- Mutual : A group of independent stations - 1934
- ABC (American Broadcasting Company), established in 1943 by sugar magnate Edward J. Noble
- In 1945 there are still 900 independent stations - There are also public stations (City of New York University)
- regulation: First text adopted in 1926 the Radio Act establishes the authority of public power over the allocation of wavelengths. In 1934 the Federal FCC allocates spectrum "She refuses to establish an a priori censorship but can remove the authorization to issue if it is spreading false information and" pornography "and it requires equal treatment of candidates during Election
- Organization of airtime. For example CBS in 1927 to provide 18 hours of programming per day at 20 stations network gives them free emission filling financed by advertising but must distribute them when there's more audience-stations pay for programming prestigious
- Advertising - Agencies are born to feed the press. In 1975 birth of the first agency, Ayer and Sons, Philadelphia. She invented the concept of global contract: the agency prepares the messages, find locations and has business with an exclusive contract. Agencies are expanding their business by 1900 the board from manufacturers: marketing appears. Agencies perform a measurement of the audience for newspapers. In 1914 the newspapers themselves organize a service of the circulation audit. 1931il exists in an office audit of the circulation of press indirectly fixed the price of advertising.
For radio system is adapted Arthur A. NIELSEN engineer from MIT created a device that measures for each position the viewing hours and frequencies. advertising on radio is never seriously questioned. In 1929 the FCC wrote:
- "... The Commission must recognize that without advertising the radio would not exist ... If a law was passed against advertising the public would be deprived of millions of dollars in programs that are developed simply because those who fund them think curry a favorable opinion of the auditors in respect of the network or the advertiser who associates his name and the program activity "
- The steps are systematized in the years 1930-40: - Steps are being made each week: 1 point = 800 000 - There are small green books: the "Nielsen" that give the audience measurement of emissions-testing families: keep a "book" that shows what 'they listen. There is a measurement campaign every year to fix the price of advertising on major networks.
- Qualitative-The Radio Research Group of Paul Lazarsfeld, a professor at Columbia University in New York and Chicago, specializing in audience research. We measure the satisfaction of listeners by making them push a button green or red depending on their opinion while they listen to a broadcast. Emissions are tested before distribution. These works of social engineering are conducted thereafter by members of the "Chicago School"
II. PROGRAMS
The four pillars of the programs are the Star System, Serials, Games and Information.
Star System: We collect hearing about famous names. NBC and CBS compete Jack Benny on Saturday evening. CBS draws Bing Crosby, who is famous, along with the American Tobacco Cy advertiser. Emissions of these stars have as facilitators of content "varieties," light music, entertainers, comedians, all greeted by a "host" famous.
* Serials / Soap Operas - The serials are imitated film. The archetype was the perils of Pauline. They are called Soap Opera because they are sponsored by brands of detergents. They are broadcast in the afternoon and aimed at a female audience. Episodes are 15 min. They tell the feelings and the vicissitudes of ordinary life-the afternoon listening Ma Perkins ("Mother of America") or The Goldbergs (representing recent immigrants in New York), or The Romance of Helen Trent . In 1936 The American Family Robinson is funded by the National Association of Manufacturers and staged a "normal" family of the working class where the father is responsible for the whole family and has the authority. The series for adolescents metent with characters borrowed Comics: Dick Tracy , Little Orphan Annie . The character of the series for teens can be proposed as models and Jack Armstrong, The All American Boy or The Lone Ranger. Some soap deal with changes in society. Two on a Shoestring in the 1940s shows young girls work in New York. The soaps are "mobilized" during the war to boost the morale of the nation. Some characters "go" to the front.
The authors are experimenting with new narrative forms: in Central Station all the characters intersect at station of the same name. The contents focus
consensus values to stereotype. In Amos'n'Andy the two heroes, taxi owners are African-American played by whites.
The soaps were introduced as hero of "new" urban characters: journalists, police officers, detectives. They offer a bleak vision of the big city, "a thin wall of detectives and journalists separate it from anarchy ..."
Social function of Soap Operas. Contrary to what critics think of from the educated, who do not listen not in reality, Soap does not address a "crowd" but undifferentiated groups (women, youth ...). However, they are streamed in all groups of society and thus have a unifying effect. They create a common agenda (we expect the new episode). They contribute to the unification of lifestyle products consumed by. The schedule of matches on the radio otherwise has the same unifying effect throughout the country.
They create a reflection on the new popular culture. It criticizes their simplistic plots, their stereotypical characters, their conservative values. Plaidant en leur faveur, les études commandées par les compagnies rappellent qu’ils permettent aux auditrices de faire l’expérience de sentiments et d’émotions plus larges que ceux de leur quotidien. Le soap tire de leur solitude les Américaines des années 1940, souvent confinées à la maison.
Jeux : Les jeux radiophonique ont aussi une dimension sociale et politique. Le plus célèbre est « La question à 64 dollars ». Le jeu peut être compris comme la mise en scène d’une société compétitive où émergent les talents.
La radio comme culture ? Des formes de la culture savante ou semi savante were also well established on the radio. You can hear classical music and jazz. We work by the creation of a playwriting adapted. Orson Welles writes for radio War of the Worlds triggers panic famous cleverly orchestrated. The Lux Radio Theater Cecil B De Mille movie transposes a weekly luxury with its stars on the air are produced documentaries for radio during the Great Depression.
Radio, Press and politics - Stations conflict ave the press in the 1920s for the premiere of information. Networks like CBS are creating newspapers Information sponsored by advertising. It appears a new form of political communication illustrated by the fireside conversations Roosevelt
Conclusion. The radio network develops the model that is extraordinarily successful in creating a culture industry that can be imposed on the entire population and to invent new forms of popular culture. In 1944 90% of Americans listen to radio. listeners. The federal commission began to fear their power. It launched an investigation for abuse of dominant position and NBC must sell one of its networks. However in the 1950's the development of television will be entrusted to the major networks: NBC, CBS, ABC.
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